Four Crucial Variables in Baking

How to Measure Flour

The recipes in this book give flour measurements by cup, since that is the preferred way of measuring in the United States. Unless otherwise noted in a recipe, always measure the flour un-sifted and fill the cup scantly. To get the scant measure, dip out a cup of flour and then shake off some of the flour so the cup measures in between three-fourths full and full to the rim. After measuring the flour scantly, proceed with the recipe, sifting the flour when the directions give cue.

A half cup, quarter cup, and eighth cup are measured true.

Measuring with cups instead of weighing out the ingredients in grams has certain disadvantages. Some bakers may measure a cup very full while others level the flour with a knife, which can compact the flour. With a compacted measure, a baker could easily end up with one-eighth to one-fourth cup too much flour, which will produce a dense or dry texture. The scant measure protects baked goods from this problem. Adding more flour to a soft, loose dough is much easier than adjusting liquid ingredients to get a lumpy dough back to the correct consistency.

To safeguard against circumstances when bakers accidentally compact the flour or use a highly moisture-absorbent brand, many recipes will reserve some flour before getting started with the process of combining ingredients. This is primarily to prevent adding too much flour.

The baker will judge the dough or batter consistency at the end of mixing to see if the reserved flour will be needed. Cues in the recipe provide guidance to help judge consistency. Because flour measurements are so important, chapter introductions also include reminders with flour information relevant to that chapter’s dough or batter.

Flours Vary in Liquid Absorption

Most recipes in this book use unbleached all-purpose flour. Unbleached flour is a natural flour and may not look as white as bleached flour, but since bleached flour is processed with bromine and chlorine to achieve a white look, I prefer the natural color of the grain. Flour for baking Mürbeteige and cakes typically has a protein content of three grams per one-fourth cup (twelve grams per one cup); some pastry flours have even less. Each flour brand absorbs water and other liquids with different capacities, and it is necessary to adjust the flour amount in a recipe according to the brand used. It is often best to find a favorite flour and use it consistently. In doing so, bakers grow accustomed to the adjustments that are needed for a particular brand.

It is my recommendation that bakers start with a brand they are familiar with, providing it has no more than three grams of protein per one-fourth cup (twelve grams per one cup). For example, Gold Medal flour meets this protein count. Protein information is available on the ingredients list of the packaging. Bakers should use their chosen brand (with no more than three grams of protein per one-fourth cup) consistently while growing familiar with the dough and batter consistencies. Once familiar with a recipe, it is easy to switch to other flour brands and make adjustments to the flour amount as necessary to achieve proper consistency (see “Guidelines to Adjust Flour Amounts” later in this section).

In the U.S., flour milling is not standardized, and every brand varies. Thus, every flour brand we buy has its own characteristics. This variation is a difference between U.S. and European flour. In Europe, each country has milling standards to which flour mills have to adhere. Flour types have numbers to indicate the protein content and whether the grain is milled with or without the bran. The bran is the outer layer of the wheat kernel. The kernel also consists of the inner white endosperm and the germ, which is the part that grows into a new plant after fertilization. In the processing of the grain, the bran is removed from the kernel, and then partial bran may be added back to the grains before milling. The heavier the flour, the more bran that was added back. Flours from light whole wheat to entire whole wheat flour can be achieved this way. In Europe, these flours are numbered, indicating which types are most suited for which baked good. Lower-number flours have less bran; higher-number flours have more bran.

The number system makes it easy to tell which flour type is best for which type of dough or batter. The numbers for the German flour are derived by burning one hundred grams of flour at 900°C. What is left are the minerals, and this ash is weighed. The higher the number, the more mineral content in the flour, meaning the flour was milled with partial to whole bran. For example, type 405 flour is a low number on the German scale. It is milled with only the white endosperm (no bran) and has only 405 milligrams of minerals in one hundred grams of flour. Type 405 has a powder-like texture, smoother than flours milled with bran, and is used for delicate baked goods, including pound and sponge cakes, sweet yeast cakes, shortcrusts, and cookies. In my experience in American markets, all-purpose flour with three grams of protein per one-fourth cup is most similar to type 405. Type 550 is for white breads, rolls, and pizza doughs and can be used for sweet yeast cakes as well. Some health-conscious bakers will use type 550 instead of 405 even for their delicate baked goods (550 is milled with some bran) or if they prefer the heavier texture. Type 1050 is wheat flour for breads. There are many more types of flour. The heavier types are grainier, and when rubbed between fingers, the varied feel of smooth and coarse in the flour is obvious. For bread baking, flour types are often mixed to achieve the desired taste and texture, and breads range from light white to heavier whole grain. Vollkorn flour (whole grain flour) is the heaviest. It is milled with the entire wheat kernel and has no type number; it is simply called whole grain flour.

France uses a different numbering system. A few flour types include T45 for shortcrusts, cakes, and cookies; T55 for white breads, rolls, pizza doughs, and sweet yeast cakes; and T65 for baguettes. Italy has Tipo numbers for flours, including Tipo 00, 0, 1, and 2. Lower numbers have a finer grind than higher numbers.

With these standards in each country, the baker can rely on the numbers and know the flour was milled to these specifications. The countries adhere to their own numbering system, and you will not see the French or Italian numbering system in Germany and vice versa since each country must follow milling specifications for each type of flour. For example, if 00 Italian flour is available in the grocery store in Germany or France, it will have been imported from Italy. The specifications on how to mill flour white or whole wheat are governed by each country’s milling laws, and the numbering system pertains to the milling specifications of each country; therefore, the numbering labels are not interchangeable between countries.

Since I have written this book, imported German flours milled to German standards are available online in the United States. They are excellent sources of strong, tasty flour. The websites germanshop24.com and europeandeli.com are well worth exploring for their flours.

Guidelines to Adjust Flour Amounts: Because flour milling is not standardized in the U.S., bakers have to know how to adjust the flour amounts for a recipe to accommodate the specific characteristics of different flour brands. For one brand, you may use exactly the amount indicated in the recipe. For another brand, you may have to use one-fourth cup less for every two cups of flour called for in the recipe. Yet another flour may be highly absorbent compared to other brands and will need even less flour. Some specialty flours like French flour T45 are very close to the absorbency of American all-purpose brands containing three grams of protein per one-fourth cup of flour.

As a general rule, no matter which flour is used, bakers must always be observant to the look, texture, and taste of their work. If a recipe comes out a bit dry for your preference, cut back on the flour the next time. If a recipe comes out too loose and falls apart, add one-eighth to one-fourth cup more flour the next time. Bear in mind that a little added flour goes a long way. Pencil in notes on what you did differently and date the notes. I promise after one or two times of using a favorite flour, you will get baked goods exactly as you fancy.

How to Adjust for Oven Rack Placement

Ovens are made in varying sizes and have anywhere from three to seven rungs for rack placement. Heat distribution is also a variable factor. The heat distribution in German ovens is split between the bottom and top coils. In U.S. ovens, the heat generally comes from the bottom coils only, with the top coils kicking in just during preheating or when the oven temperature drops significantly, for example, when the door is open for too long while adjusting a rack or baking pan. These variances have an impact. While my mother in Germany bakes most of her cakes on low rungs, I bake them in the middle or just below the middle in U.S. ovens. Perhaps there are a few cakes that I bake lower with an added cookie sheet underneath to keep the crust from getting too dark.

Even as I have worked to translate German recipes to U.S. kitchens, differing oven sizes containing from three to seven rungs make it difficult to give precise rung placement instructions. I did my best to find the correct rung placement for baking in every oven, and I have used generalized terms to direct a wide variety of bakers who are using a wide variety of ovens. These terms will be one of the following: bottom third of oven, middle of oven, top third of oven.

Individual recipes in this book also offer guidelines for troubleshooting to prevent the tops and bottoms of cakes, pies, and cookies from burning. Some recipes recommend covering just the outer rim of the cake or pie’s top to prevent darkening around the edges. Some recipes (such as the Pecan Pie) recommend covering the entire top of the pie with aluminum foil, loosely placed, for the last part of the bake time. A few recipes suggest placing a cookie sheet on the rung below the baking rack to prevent the pastry’s bottom from excessive darkening.

With oven rack placement, as with flour measurements, the baker’s observation is essential. If you find that the bottom and sides of baked goods consistently get too dark and the top stays pale, the baking rack needs to be placed one rung higher. If the bottom and sides are consistently underbaked, but the entire top (not just the outer rim, which can be easily covered with a pie crust shield—“About Pie Crust Shields”) gets too brown, then lower the rack by one rung the next time.

The Impact of Different Baking Pans

There are many different baking pans on the market, from dark to light metal, to plain aluminum pans, to pans that utilize aluminum with a nonstick coating. Light color metals bake lighter crusts, and dark color metals bake faster and produce darker crusts. There are also nonstick coated steel pans, ceramic pans, glass pans, and silicone forms on the market. Each pan will bake differently, and in general, baking times can vary by ten to fifteen minutes. Therefore, when baking for the first time in a new pan, it is a good idea to set the timer fifteen minutes early and check on the doneness every five minutes thereafter to determine the baking time for that particular pan. For recipes with very short bake times, like cookies, for example, set the timer two minutes early.

In Summary of the Four Crucial Variables

Just as in cooking, there will be some experimenting until bakers find the right amount and type of flour for their taste, the right rung placement in their home’s oven, and the proper baking time for their pans. In this book, I aimed to get as close as I could to ensure consistent baking results. However, due to these four variables, individual decisions have to be made, and I am sure every baker—novice and experienced—is very capable of doing so.